The Continuing Debate:
Replies to Critics and Further Research

The first section below lists in chronological order published writings (in journals, books and periodicals) on a wide variety of topics. Short summaries are given, together with key quotes or comments highlighting important issues in the debate. Where possible, we hope in due course to add full online texts of all published material. Click on the links below to read those presently available. Some material may require an Adobe Acrobat Reader, which can be obtained here. The second section, in preparation, will include new material specially written for this website.

1. PRINTED PUBLICATIONS

• James, P. J., Thorpe, I. J., Kokkinos, N., Morkot, R., Frankish, J., 1991. "Centuries of Darkness: Context, Methodology and Implications", Cambridge Archaeological Journal 1:2, pp. 228-235.

  An invited paper written to coincide with the publication of Centuries of Darkness. Our paper was published as part of a Review Feature (pp. 227-253) together with these responses: Kenneth Kitchen: "Egyptian Chronology: Problem or Solution? (pp. 235-239); Barry Kemp: "Examining Ancient Crises" (pp. 239-244); Nicholas Postgate: "The Chronology of Assyria - An Insurmountable Obstacle" (pp. 244-246); Anthony Snodgrass: "The Aegean Angle" (pp. 246-247); Andrew and Susan Sherratt: "Urnfield Reflections" (pp. 247-250)

• James, P. J. & Morkot, R., 1991. Letter [reply to Kitchen 1], Times Literary Supplement June 7, p. 15.

  Deals with Kitchen's ad hominem dismissal of CoD, his hypocritical attitude towards Manetho and his alleged 'dead-reckoning' of the Third Intermediate Period; ends with a challenge to prove his main point that there was no overlap between the 21st and 22nd Dynasties.

• James, P. 1991. Letter [reply to Kitchen 2], Times Literary Supplement July 12, p. 13.

  A reply to Kitchen's reply - on TIP chronology, Assyrian parallel dynasties and the hapless Takeloth I.

• James, P. J., Thorpe, I. J., Kokkinos, N., Morkot, R., Frankish, J., 1992. "Centuries of Darkness: A Reply to Critics", Cambridge Archaeological Journal 2:1, pp. 127-130.

  Short replies to the remarks of Kitchen, Kemp, Postgate, Snodgrass and the Sherratts in CAJ 1:2. Included are new arguments on a number of matters, e.g. the identification of the biblical Shishak. In the conclusion we threw down the gauntlet to our critics: "It must be clearly understood that adherents of the status quo cannot have it both ways. Cypriot and Palestinian archaeologists can no longer co-exist in a never-never land in which they 'agree' to differ about the dating of Black-on-Red by as much as two centuries. The situation is absurd. We have done our best to provide the kind of imaginative solution which Kemp, the Sherratts and others feel should be applied to the chronological problems of the Dark Ages. The onus is now on our critics to provide between them a better general strategy for resolving the abysmally muddled state of Late Bronze to Iron Age archaeology."

• James, P. J. & Kokkinos, N., 1992-3, Letter [reply to Mellaart 1991/2], Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society 12, p. 80.

  A reply to some fantastic claims made by James Mellaart in a review of Centuries of Darkness. (For further detail see Frequently Asked Questions Q12c.)

• Morkot, R., 1994. "The Nubian Dark Age", in C. Bonnet (ed.), Études Nubiennes II. Actes du VIIe Congrès internationale d'études nubiennes, 3-8 septembre 1990 (Genève), pp. 45-47.

  A brief conference paper highlighting the issues of the Nubian Dark Age and its chronology.

• James, P. J., 1996. "Updating the Centuries of Darkness", British Archaeology 13 (April), pp. 8-9.

  A short article for a general readership, summarising the case for the Centuries of Darkness model and reviewing some new evidence in support - including the dendrochronological results from Tille Hüyük and the stratigraphy of the Tel Dan stela.

• James, P., Kokkinos, N., & Thorpe, I. J., 1998: "Mediterranean Chronology in Crisis", in M. S. Balmuth & R. H. Tykot (eds), Sardinian and Aegean Chronology: Proceedings of the International Colloquium 'Sardinian Stratigraphy and Mediterranean Chronology', Tufts University, March 17-19, 1995 (Studies in Sardinian Archaeology V - Oxbow Books), pp. 29-43. Corrigenda and Addendum to Postscript (Dec. 1998) [ 102K].

  Paper delivered at a major chronology conference. Topics covered include problems in Phoenician palaeographic dating (with particular respect to Sardinia), the tensions between Aegean and Palestinian archaeological chronologies, the setting of a late 8th to early 7th-century "Cypro-Phoenician horizon" as a solid benchmark for chronology-building (as far as Carthage), the controversies over Black-on-Red Ware and Samaria, problems of the Egyptian Third Intermediate Period (largely focussing on genealogical evidence for a 21st-22nd Dynasty overlap), implications for Central Mediterranean chronology, radiocarbon dating of the Aegean and dendrochronology in Anatolia (with some caveats about the misuses of both). Includes a full answer to Manning and Weninger's 1992 Antiquity article claiming that C14 dates from Greece refute our model. In the postscript (p. 41) we note, with some surprise, that Israel Finkelstein, who had previously argued for raising the dates of the Early Iron Age in Edom, had begun publishing papers arguing in a different direction: "Israel Finkelstein has outlined a radical revision of the Iron Age of Palestine which argues a lowering of Iron IIA ("10th-century") levels to the 9th century, similar to that proposed by the authors although attempting to work within the conventional chronology."

• Morkot, R. 1999a. "The Origin of the Napatan State", in S. Wenig (ed.), Studien zum antiken Sudan (Akten der 7. Internationalen Tagung für meroitische Forschungen, 14-19 Sep. 1992 in Gosen/bei Berlin), pp. 139-48.

  This paper was presented in response to Timothy Kendall's main paper on "The Origin of the Napatan State" at the Seventh International Conference for Meroitic Studies at Berlin in 1992. It challenges the usual academic method of discussing 'Napatan' origins, which focusses almost exclusively on the chronology of the cemetery of el-Kurru, by taking broader themes of state formation (economic, military capability, ideology etc) and asking where we might look for evidence, and how all of these factors might relate to the period of Egyptian New Kingdom domination.

• Morkot, R. 1999b. "Kingship and Kinship in the Empire of Kush", in S. Wenig (ed.), Studien zum antiken Sudan (Akten der 7. Internationalen Tagung für meroitische Forschungen, 14-19 Sep. 1992 in Gosen/bei Berlin), pp. 179-229.

  This was one of the principal discussion papers presented at the Seventh International Conference for Meroitic Studies at Berlin in 1992. It discusses the genealogy and succession of the 25th Dynasty kings and the evidence for their reign lengths. It considers these issues within the broader context of ancient 'Nubian' and Kushite states.

• Morkot, R., 2000. The Black Pharaohs (London: Rubicon Press).

  A highly acclaimed study of the Nubian pharaohs of Egypt (25th Dynasty). See Recent Developments March 2000 and for publication details see Other Books by the Authors. In a general work, Robert Morkot works open-handedly with two dating systems in mind - the conventional and Centuries of Darkness chronologies. From the introduction (p. ix):

  The ideas expressed here are more developed than those in Centuries and if I have not chosen to be dogmatic on chronological revision, it is not because I have abandoned the idea: I still see it as the most convincing explanation of the problems of the Nubian (and other) "Dark Age".

  The volume contains a wealth of material (with copious plans, maps, photographs and drawings) on matters such as the El-Kurru cemetery, the rise of the Napatan dynasty and the chronology of the 25th Dynasty. Much new material is presented for consideration, notably the so-called "Neo-Ramesside" monarchs previously (and arbitrarily) dated to the Hellenistic period. Robert places these rulers at the time of the Libyan domination of Egypt (9th-8th centuries BC). This makes better sense of their "Neo-Ramesside" titularly, especially within the CoD chronology, which would allow the 20th (last Ramesside) Dynasty to end in the 9th century rather than the 11th.

• James, P., 2002a. Review of I. Finkelstein & N. Silberman: The Bible Unearthed, Minerva [ 1300K] March/April, p. 64.

  A short review of a book in which Finkelstein moves close to the 'minimalist' position. Now arguing (as did Centuries of Darkness) that 10th-century "Solomonic" strata in Israel really belong to the 9th century, Finkelstein plunges kings David and Solomon into a new "dark age" and has to redefine them as local chieftains. As noted in the review, "...matters are not as straightforward as The Bible Unearthed would like us to believe. While Finkelstein stresses the fluidity of the chronology for early Israelite archaeology, his own analysis proceeds within an extremely narrow focus. It is not enough to adjust the dates of one part of Israel's archaeology (the 10th-9th centuries) and then compare the results to the biblical record. There is a need for a complete overhaul of ancient Near Eastern chronology."

• James, P., 2002b. "The Dendrochronology Debate" [ 691K], Minerva July/August, p. 18.

  A brief update on developments in Peter Kuniholm's "Aegean Dendochronology Project", with caveats regarding its methodology, mistakes and publication record.

• James, P., 2002c. Review of William Dever: What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? [ 122K], Palestine Exploration Quarterly 134:2, pp. 176-178.

  Dever is one of the most bitter critics of Centuries of Darkness (see his classic remarks in Quotes from Reviews). Here the favour is not quite returned, as Dever's book - in defence of the historical value of the biblical account during the period of the united and divided monarchies - has much to recommend it. Nevertheless, his attempts to reconstruct historical events from archaeology are deeply flawed. His analysis of the evidence for equating the biblical Shishak with Pharaoh Shoshenq I displays a complete lack of acquaintance with the basic source material. Ultimately Dever falls into much the same traps as the 'minimalists' that he attempts to answer - they have both failed to understand the chronological implications of Egyptologists' reliance on the biblical story of Shishak.

• Morkot, R., 2003a. "On the Priestly Origin of the Napatan Kings: The Adaptation, Demise and Resurrection of Ideas in Writing Nubian History", in D. Connor (ed.), Ancient Egypt in Africa (London: UCL Press - Encounters with Ancient Egypt series), pp. 151-168.

  Examines the historiography of the 25th Dynasty, especially the idea that the Kushite ruling family were descendants of Theban priests. Discusses alternative relative chronologies of the Kurru cemetery against conventional and revised (CoD) absolute chronology, with a chart illustrating the different models.

• Morkot, R. 2003b. "Archaism in Egyptian Art from the New Kingdom to the Late Period", in J. Tait (ed.), "Never Had the Like Occurred": Egypt's View of its Past (London: UCL Press - Encounters with Ancient Egypt series), pp. 79-100.

  This paper looks at the 'archaising' style of Kushite and Saite Egypt and its origins in the Libyan period, raising questions about the internal chronology of the Libyan period, and stylistic changes and developments. The paper does not attempt to resolve the specifics of Late Libyan chronology, but highlights some of the generally neglected material (such as that from the Sacred Lake at Tanis) and how interpreting changes in artistic style is reliant upon a sound internal chronology for the period.

• James, P., 2003. "Naukratis Revisited", [ 493K] Hyperboreus: Studia classica 9:2, pp. 235-264.

  An in-depth article on the chronological significance of Naukratis, the first historically recorded Greek settlement in Egypt, from the leading Russian classics journal Hyperboreus. (PDF available online by kind permission of the editors.) The abstract (translated from that published in Russian) reads as follows:

  Herodotus stated that the Greek settlement at Naukratis in Egypt began during the reign of Pharaoh Amasis (570-526 BC). It is usually maintained that archaeology has proven him wrong, as the presently accepted dating for Archaic Greek pottery places the colony in the late 7th century. A combination of stratigraphic and historical evidence, together with that provided by Egyptian, Cypriot and Phoenician artefacts, suggests that the Greek pottery dating is in error, rather than Herodotus. Naukratis may provide a neglected fixed point for Archaic chronology, now the subject of renewed controversy. The evidence from Naukratis (as well as Selinus and Old Smyrna) suggests that Greek ceramic chronology "c. 600 BC" needs to be lowered by some 25-35 years.

  This is the first of a planned series of articles dealing with the suggestion made in Centuries of Darkness that Archaic Greek pottery chronology c. 600 BC needs lowering by some three to four decades from the conventional model. The wider ramifications for the chronology of the Aegean and Palestine/Israel during the Iron Age will be discussed in further papers.

• Morkot, R., 2004. "Le origini del regne di Kush", in S. Einaudi & F. Tiradritti (eds), L'Enigma di Harwa (Milan: Anthelios), pp. 19-41

  A summary in Italian of Robert's work on the El-Kurru cemetery, the Nubian "Dark Age" and the origins of the 25th Dynasty.

• James, P., 2004. "The Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian Periods in Palestine", Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society 22, pp. 47-58.

  A review article based on Ephraim Stern’s Archaeology of the Land of the Bible Vol. II: The Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian Periods 732-332 BCE (New York/London: Doubleday, 2001). In the words of the Editor of the Bulletin (p. 6), “Peter James surveys the strengths and weaknesses of the book, takes Stern to task on the supposed ‘gap’ in the Babylonian period, and provides some interesting insights concerning the chronological problems of that time.” The shaky nature of the dating of the three periods concerned is stressed, and the tension between an Archaic pottery chronology based on Greek history (principally Herodotus) and that presently preferred by excavators in Palestine is briefly explored.

• James, P., 2005a. "The Date of the Ekron Temple Inscription - a Note", Israel Exploration Journal 55:1, pp. 90-93.

  Abstract: The famous inscription from Tel Miqne (Ekron) commemorates the building of the Stratum IC temple by Achish (Ikausu), a figure known from Assyrian records of the second quarter of the 7th century BCE. Thus the belief of the excavators that the temple was built “no later than the first quarter of the seventh century” is a non sequitur. A date c. 675-650 BCE for the construction of the temple is suggested and the implications for the chronology of Stratum IC considered.

• James, P., 2005b. "Archaic Greek Colonies in Libya: Historical vs. Archaeological Chronologies?" [ 102K], Libyan Studies 36, pp. 1-20. (PDF available online by kind permission of the editors).

  Abstract: The presently accepted ceramic chronology places the earliest episodes of Greek colonisation in Libya some three to four decades earlier than the traditional historical dates. A similar offset between the archaeological and historical chronologies can be seen at Naukratis and other Archaic Greek sites. A review of 'fixed points' for Archaic dating shows that the balance of evidence now strongly favours a reduction of late seventh to early sixth century BC Greek ceramic chronology by three to four decades. Such a reduction would bring harmony between the archaeological and historical pictures for the founding of the Cyrenaican colonies, restoring confidence in the account given by Herodotus.

• James, P., 2006. "Dating Late Iron Age Ekron (Tel Miqne) " [ 80K], Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 138:2 (2006), pp. 85-97. (PDF available online by kind permission of the editors).

  Abstract: A fresh approach is offered to the tangled arguments that surround the dating of late Iron Age Ekron (Tel Miqne). The only firm historical peg for dating the late Iron strata is provided by the temple inscription of Ikausu, an Ekronite ruler mentioned in Assyrian records in the second quarter of the seventh century BCE. From this evidence, somewhat lower dates than those of the excavators are argued for Strata IC to IA. The lower chronology suggested here should resolve the differences between various scholars regarding the character and historical associations of Ekron’s final Iron Age strata. Ramifications for the related debate over the dating of Greek Archaic pottery are considered.

• James, P., 2007. Review of D. Ussishkin, The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973-1994) (2004) [ 54K], Palestine Exploration Quarterly 139:3, 213-217. (PDF available online by kind permission of the editors).

2. INTERNET NOTES AND PAPERS

1. The Uluburun Shipwreck - a Dendrochronological Scandal [ 151K]. The Aegean Dendrochronology Project has asserted that a tree-ring date from the ancient shipwreck off Uluburun vindicates the conventional chronology and refutes the case argued in Centuries of Darkness for a major lowering of the Late Bronze Age. Further investigation has shown that this "tree-ring date" is not all it has been claimed to be.

2. The Francis and Vickers’ Chronology: A Bibliography [ 102K]. As a research tool for those studying the debate over the dating of Greek Archaic archaeology, we have prepared a bibliography of articles both for and against the chronology of Francis and Vickers.